本篇文章共分 4 段，針對伊朗的地理狀態所產生的畜牧業與其後因為水利工程的突破而產生的農業做有系統的整理與說明。

本篇考題英文原文與對應之中文翻譯整理如下。練習作答解題時若有對語意不清楚之處，請仔細查閱對照，以提升閱讀理解能力。

Pastoralism and Agriculture in Iran 伊朗的牧業和農業

1. 伊朗游牧業的興起

   Geographical constraints have had important consequences for the economy and society of Iran. Where rainfall is adequate, there are fertile valleys and grasslands suitable for grazing animals. However, since the natural vegetation tends to be sparse, it is difficult for such animals to remain in one place for any length of time. Thus, nomadic pastoralism—keeping livestock (such as sheep and goats) by wandering from place to place—was one of the first and most persistent human economic activities to flourish in this area. This nomadic movement was often of the vertical variety, with people and animals moving from lowlands in wintertime to highlands in summer. The animals raised by the pastoralists provided not only food but also material for crafts such as the making of carpets, thick felt cloth, and tents. The pastoralists were typically organized into large tribal confederations capable of controlling the vast territories needed for maintaining their herds.

   地理上的限制對伊朗的經濟和社會產生了重要影響。在降雨量充足的地方，有肥沃的山谷和草原，適合放牧動物。然而，由於自然植被往往比較稀少，這些動物很難在一個地方停留很長時間。因此，遊牧業—通過從一個地方移動到另一個地方來飼養牲畜（如綿羊和山羊）—是在這一地區最早和最持久的人類經濟活動之一。這種遊牧移動通常是縱向的，人和動物從冬季的低地到夏季的高地。牧民飼養的動物不僅提供了食物，還提供了製作地毯、厚氈布和帳篷等工藝品的材料。牧民通常被組織成大型的部落聯盟，能夠控制維持其牧群所需的廣闊領土。

2. 部落成立、擴張與衰退

   The tribes were a powerful social and political factor throughout Iranian history. The skills necessary for herding animals, hunting and chasing off predators, directing migrations, disciplining tribesmen, and protecting lands and animals from rivals could be easily adapted and directed toward military purposes as well. It was typically the tribes that produced the soldiers and rulers of the country and provided the power base for most of its dynasties. Once established, governments needed to cultivate the support of friendly tribal groups and tried to control hostile tribes by combat, deportation, or forcible settlement. At the beginning of the twentieth century, approximately one-fourth of the population were tribal peoples, and they were a potent force in Iranian affairs. With the advent of mechanized armies in the 1930s, however, there were systematic efforts to break the power of the tribes and to coerce the tribal population into a sedentary way of life. These efforts have been largely successful, and the tribes are no longer so significant a force in either the Iranian economy or society. Less than 5 percent of the population now consists of nomadic pastoralists.

   部落在伊朗歷史上是一個強大的社會和政治因素。放牧動物、狩獵和驅趕掠食者、指揮遷徙、約束部落成員、保護土地和動物不受對手侵害等方面的必要技能，也可以很容易地適應和用於軍事目的。通常是部落產生了國家的士兵和統治者，為大多數王朝提供了權力基礎。一旦建立起來，政府需要培養友好部落群體的支持，並試圖通過戰鬥、驅逐出境或強行定居來控制敵對部落。二十世紀初，約有四分之一的人口是部落居民，他們是伊朗事務中一支強大的力量。然而，隨著 20 世紀 30 年代機械化軍隊的出現，開始了努力以計劃性方式擊破部落的力量，並脅迫部落人口採取定居的生活方式。這些努力在很大程度上是成功的，部落不再是伊朗經濟或社會中的重要力量。現在只有不到 5% 的人口是遊牧民。

3. 暗渠與農業

   The aridity of the Iranian plateau retarded its agricultural development in comparison to adjacent regions such as Mesopotamia, which had great rivers to draw upon for a supply of water. Eventually, at some uncertain date probably about 26 centuries ago, there was a technological breakthrough that made it possible to farm crops outside the few oases, streams, and other places with sufficient rainfall for agriculture. This was the development of underground canals known as qanats. The qanat system took advantage of the natural slope (inclination) of the plateau basins. A well would be dug in the foothills to reach a water source, usually water from melting snow that had seeped underground. Then a sequence of wells and shafts connected by underground canals would be constructed to transport the water to an area suitable for cultivation where it could support the needs of one or more villages. The slope of the underground canals had to be controlled carefully to prevent erosion, and the interior surface of wells and shafts needed to be kept under constant maintenance to prevent them from collapsing.

   與美索不達米亞等鄰近地區相比，伊朗高原的乾旱阻礙了其農業發展，因為美索不達米亞有大河可供灌溉。最終，在某個不確定的日期，大概在 26 個世紀前，出現了一項技術突破，使得在少數綠洲、溪流和其他有足夠降雨量的之處的其他地方能夠種植農作物。這就是被稱為暗渠的地下水渠的發展。暗渠系統利用了高原盆地的自然坡度（傾斜度）。在山腳下挖一口井，以獲得水源，通常是融化的雪滲入地下的水。然後建造一連串由地下水渠連接的水井和豎井，將水輸送到適合耕種的地區，以滿足一個或多個村莊的需要。地下水渠的坡度必須仔細控制，以防止水土流失，而且水井和豎井的內部表面需要不斷維護，以防止它們倒塌。

4. 暗渠規模與效益

   Since the canals were underground, loss from evaporation was minimized. Gravity provided the means of moving the water, so no mechanical energy was required to operate the system. The numerous wells and shafts kept the length of the tricky underground canal short and facilitated repairs of each segment. Built up over the centuries, the system eventually became immense. It has been estimated that the total length of the qanat system today, counting wells, shafts, and canals, is in excess of 300,000 kilometers (almost the distance from Earth to the Moon!), which gives some idea of the tremendous investment in money and labor power it represents. Yet the type of agriculture that developed around the qanat system gave modest yields and required hard work from the peasant farmers, who received only a small share of the agricultural produce.

   由於運河在地下，蒸發造成的損失被降到了最低。重力提供了移動水的方法，因此不需要機械能來操作該系統。大量的水井和豎井使棘手的地下運河可以維持短長度，便於對每段運河進行維修。經過幾個世紀的建設，該系統最終變得非常龐大。據估計，今天暗渠系統的總長度，算上水井、豎井和運河，超過了 30 萬公里（幾乎相當於從地球到月球的距離！），這在一定程度上說明了它在資金和勞動力方面的巨大投資。然而，圍繞暗渠系統發展起來的農業產量不高，需要農民辛勤勞動，但他們只能分得農產品的一小部分。